ያምኻድ
ያምኻድ በጥንታዊ ሶርያ የተገኘ መንግሥት ሲሆን ዋና ከተማው በሃላብ (አሌፖ) ነበር።[1] የያምኻድ መንግሥት በታሪክ መዝገብ መጀመርያ የሚጠቀሰው ከማሪ ንጉሥ ያኽዱን-ሊም (1723-1707 ዓክልበ.) ጎረቤቶች መካከል ሲሆን ነው። የያምኻድ ነግሥታት በሥራዊትም ሆነ በዲፕሎማሲ ግዛታቸውን አስፋፉ። ከመመሠረቱ ጀምሮ ያምኻድ ከጠላቶቹ ማሪ፣ ቃትና እና አሦር ይታገል ነበር፤ በንጉሡም 1 ያሪም-ሊም ዘመን ከሁሉ ሃይለኛ መንግሥት በሶርያ ሆነ። የያምካድ ተጽእኖ ትልቅነት ኬጥያውያን አገሩን እስካጠፉ ድረስ ነበር፤ በኋላም የሚታኒ ግዛት ሆነ።
የያምኻድ ሕዝብ በተለይ አሞራውያን ሲሆኑ ጥቂቶቹ ግን ሑራውያን ነበሩ። ከተማቸው ሃላብ እስከ ዛሬው ድረስ ተሠፍሮበት ስለ ሆነ፣ ብዙ ሥነ ቅርስ በዚያ መቸም ተደርጎ አያውቅም።[2] ስለዚህ የምናውቀው መረጃ በተለይ ከአላላኽና ከማሪ ከተገኙት ጽላቶች ይሆናል።[3]
ሃላብ ደግሞ ለአሞራዊው ጣኦት ሃዳድ የተቀደሠ ሃይማኖታዊ ማዕከል ነበረ። በቀድሞው የኤብላ ግዛት ዘመን፣ ከተማው «ሃላም» ተብሎ ይጠቀስ ነበር።[4][5]
ታሪክ
ለማስተካከልመጀመርያ የምናውቀው የያምኻድ ንጉሥ ሱሙ-ኤፑኽ (በያኽዱን-ሊም ዘመን) ከሃላብ በላይ አላላኽንና ቱባን ከተሞች ገዛ።[6] የማሪ ንጉሥ ያኽዱን-ሊም አሦርን ለመቃወም ከሱሙ-ኤፑኽ ጋር የማግባባት ስምምነት ቢኖረውም፣[7] ከትንሽ በኋላ ግን በያምኻድ ላይ ዘምቶ ነበር።[8] ሱሙ-ኤፑኽ የያሚና ልጆችን ደገፈ እና ከሌሎች አገራት ኡርሹ፣ ኻሹምና ከርከሚሽ ጋር ተባበረ።[9][10] ያኽዱን-ሊም ጠላቶቹን አሸነፋቸው፤[11] በመጨረሻ ግን በልጁ ሱሙ-ያማም ተገደለ።[12]
የአሦር መንግሥት በ1 ሻምሺ-አዳድ ሥር በዚህ ወቅት ይበረታ ጀመር። ማሪን አጠፍቶ የያክዱን-ሊም አልጋ ወራሽ ዝምሪ-ሊም ከአገሩ መሸሽ ነበረበት፤ ወደ ሱሙ-ኤፑኽ በስደት ሔደ።[12] ሻምሺ-አዳድ ልጁን ያስማሕ-አዳድን የማሪ ንጉሥ አደረገው፣ ያስማኅ-አዳድም የቃትና ንጉሥ የኢሺ-አዳድን ሴት ልጅ አግብቶ የአሦርና የቃትና ስምምነት በያምካድ ላይ አጸና።[13] ኡርሹ፣ ኻሹምና ከርከሚሽ ደግሞ ድጋፋቸውን ከያምኻድ ወደ አሦር አዛወሩ፤ ያምኻድም በሻምሺ-አዳድ ጓደኞች ተከቦ ነበር። ሱሙ-ኤፑኽ ከሻምሺ-አዳድ ጋር ጦርነት ሲያደርግ ተገድሎ ልጁ ፩ ያሪም-ሊም ተከተለው።[14] ያሪም-ሊም ስምምነቶች ከባቢሎን ንጉሥ ሃሙራቢ እና ከኤሽኑና ንጉሥ 2 ኢባልፒእል ተዋዋለ።[15] በ1689 ዓክልበ. ያሪም-ሊም ቱቱልን ይዞ ዚምሪ-ሊምን የከተማው ገዢ እንዲሆን ሾመው። በሚከተለው ዓመት ሻምሺ-አዳድ ሞተ። ከዚያ የያምኻድ ሃያላት ከዝምሪ-ሊም ጋር ያስማሕ-አዳድን አሸንፈው የማሪን ዙፋን መለሱለት[15] ያሪም-ሊምም ሴት ልጁን ሺብቱን ለዝምሪ ልም አጋባት።[16]
««ለብቻው ሃይለኛ የሆነ ንጉሥ የለም። ፲ ወይም ፲፭ ነገሥታት የባቢሎንን ገዥ ሃሙራቢን ይከተላሉ፤ ተመሳሳይ ቁጥር የላርሳ ሪም-ሲንን ይከተላሉ፤ ተመሳሳይ ቁጥር የኤሽኑና ኢባልፒኤል፣ ተመሳሳይ ቁጥር የቃትና አሙድፒኤል፣ ሃያ ግን የያምካድን ያሪም-ሊምን ይከተላሉ።»» |
— ወደ ማሪ ንጉሥ ዝምሪ-ሊም የተላከ ጽላት[17] |
ከዚያ ያሪም-ሊም ግዛቱን ወደ ምሥራቅ እስከ ሐቡር ወንዝ ድረስ፣[18] ወደ ስሜንም እስከ ማማ ድረስ አስፋፋ።[19] ማማ፣ ኤብላ እና ኡጋሪት ከተምች ሁሉ ለያምኻድ ተገዥ ሆኑ።[20][21] ቃትና ነጻነቱን ጠበቀ ግን ሻምሺ-አዳድ ዓርፎ ሰላማዊ መሆን ነበረበት።[13][22] ያሪም ሊም ወደ ደርና ድንቅቱም ንጉሥ የላከው ጦርነት ዐዋጅ በጽላት ተገንቷል፤[23] ፭ መቶ የያምኻድ መርከቦች በድንቅቱም ለ፲፪ ዓመት እንደ ቆዩ፣ የያምኻድ ሠራዊት ደርን ለ፲፭ አምመት እንደ ረዱ ይጠቅሳል።[23] የያምኻድ ንጉሥ ማዕረግ «ታላቅ ንጉሥ» ሆነ።[20][13]
የያሪም-ሊም ልጅና ተከታይ 1 ሃሙራቢ ዘመን ሰላማዊ ነበር።[15] ከርከሚሽን ተገዥ አደረገ፣[15] የባቢሎኒያንም ሃሙራቢ በላርሳና በኤላም ላይ በመርዳት ወታደሮቹን ላከ።[24] የባቢሎን ሃሙራቢ ማሪን ካጤፋ በኋላ (1673 ዓክልበ.) ያምኻድ ግን ሰላማዊ ሆኖ ቀረ።[13] የያምኻድ ፩ ሃሙራቢ ተከታይ ልጁ 1 አባ-ኤል ሲሆን በእርሱ ዘመን ኢሪዱ ከተማ አመጸበት፣ ይም ከወንድሙ ያሪም-ሊም ዘአላላኽ ሥልጣን ነበር።[25] አባ-ኤል በምላሽ ኢሪዱን አጠፋ፣ በፈንታውም አላላኽን ለወንድሙ ያሪም-ሊም ሰጠው።[25] የሑራውያን ቁጥርና በአሞራውያን ላይ ተጽእኖአቸው በዚህ ዘመን እንደ በዛ ይታወቃል፤ አባ-እል የአሞራውያንን ጣኦታት ብቻ ሳይሆን የሑርያውያንን ጣኦታት ደግሞ ይጠቅስ ነበርና።
ከአባ-ኤል ቀጥሎ ለተከታዮቹ ዘመኖች ብዙ መዝገቦች የሉም።[25] በ2 ያሪም-ሊም ዘመን የያምኻድ ኃይል ከክርክሮች የተነሣ ደክሞ ነበር።[26][27] ፫ ያሪም ሊም የያምካድ ገዥነት በቃትና ላይ ቢያስገድም፣[25] በአላላኽ ግን አሚታኩም እንደ ነጻ ያሕል መንግሥት አቆመ።[26] ሆኖም የያምኻድ ንጉሥ ከሶርያ አገራት መካከል ሃይለኛው ሆኖ ቀረ፤ «ታላቅ ንጉሥ»ም እንደ ኬጥያውያን ንጉሥ እኩል ተቆጠረ።[28] እርካብቱም (1587-1575 ዓክልበ. ግድም) የተባለው የያምሓድ ንጉሥ ሃቢሩ ከተባለው ነገድና ከአለቃቸው ሰሙማ ጋር ስምምነት እንደ ተዋዋለ ይታወቃል።
ከዚያ በኋላ የኬጥያውያን ንጉሥ 1 ሐቱሺሊ ዛቻ ወደ ደቡብ ወደ ሶርያ ጣለ።[29] ፫ ያሪም-ሊምና ተከታዩ 3 ሃሙራቢ ከሆራውያን ከተሞች ጋራ በመተባበር የሐቱሺሊን ዘመቻ ለመከላከል ቻሉ።[25] በሐቱሺሊ ሶርያዊ ዘመቻ በ፪ኛው ዓመት አላላኽን ያዘ።[30][31] ከዚያ ሐቱሺሊ የኡርሹ ሆርያውያንን አሸነፋቸው፣ ያምኻድና ከርከሚሽ ረድኤታቸውን ለኡርሹ ምንም ቢሰጡ።[32] ከዚያ ሐቱሺሊ ያምሓድን በደብረ አታሉር ውግያ አሸነፈው፣[33] ሐሹምንም አያሌው ሌሎችንም የሖርያውያን ከተሞች በሶርያዊው ዘመቻ ፮ኛው ዓመት አጠፋቸው።[30] በመጨረሻ ሓቱሺሊ ሐላብን እራሱን በቀጥታ መታ፣ ዳሩ ግን ድል ሆነ፣ተቆስሎም ሞተ (1536 ዓክልበ. ግ.)።[34][35]
የ፩ ሐቱሺሊ ተከታይ 1 ሙርሲሊ ሲሆን፣ እርሱ አድጎ የአያቱን ቂም በቅሎ ሐላብን ያዘ፤ ይህም የያምኻድ መንግሥት ውድቀት ነበር።[36] ከዚያ ሙርሲሊ እስከ ባቢሎን ድረስ ዘምቶ ባቢሎንን አጠፋ (1507 ዓክልበ.) ነገር ግን ወደ ዋና ከተማው ወደ ሐቱሳሽ በተመለሠበት ጊዜ ተገደለ።[37] ሐላብ ዳግመኛ ተሠራና አላላኽ እንደገና በግዛቱ ውስጥ ሆነ፣[38] የ«ያምኻድ» ስም ግን ተተወ፣ «ሐላብ» ብቻ ይባል ጀመር።[39] ከሐላብ ነገሥታት ስሞች በቀር ምንም ሌላ አይታወቅም፣ መጀመርያው፣ ሳራ-ኤል፣ ምናልባት የ፫ ያሪም-ሊም ልጅ ነበር።[40] የሐላብ መጨረሻ ንጉሥ 1 ኢሊም-ኢሊማ ተባለ፣[41] የሚታኒ ንጉሥ ፓርሻታታር ግን ዓመጽ አንሥቶበት ተገደለና ሚታኒ ያንጊዜ ሐላብን ያዘ።[42][43] የኢሊም-ኢሊማ ልጅ ኢድሪሚ ወደ ኤማር ሸሽቶ ከሃቢሩ ጋር 7 ዓመት ቆየ፣ ከዚያም አላላኽን አሸነፈና ሥርወ መንግሥቱን በዚያ ከተማ በሃቢሩ እርዳታ ተቀጠለ።[42][43] ሐላብ ግን ነጻነቱን በማጣት በሚታኒ መንግሥት ውስጥ ቀረ።[44]
የያምኻድ ነገሥታት
ለማስተካከልንጉሥ | ዘመን | ማዕረግ | ዝምድና |
---|---|---|---|
ሱሙ-ኤፑኽ | 1722–1692 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ንጉሥ | |
1 ያሪም-ሊም | 1692-1676 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[13] |
1 ሃሙራቢ | 1676- 1662 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[45] |
1 አባ-ኤል | 1662- 1632 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[46] |
2 ያሪም-ሊም | 1632-1612 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[47] |
ንቅሚ-ኤፑኽ | 1612-1587 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[48] |
እርካብቱም | 1587-1575 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[49] |
2 ሃሙራቢ | 1575-1570 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | ምናልባት ወንድም[50] |
3 ያሪም-ሊም | 1570-1531 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ታላቅ ንጉሥ | የእርካብቱም ወንድም[51] |
3 ሃሙራቢ | 1531-1506 ዓክልበ. ግ. | ንጉሥ | ልጅ[52] |
ሳራ-ኤል | 1506 ዓክልበ. ግ. | የሐላብ ንጉሥ | ምናልባት የ፫ ያሪም-ሊም ልጅ[40] |
2 አባ-ኤል | የሐላብ ንጉሥ | ልጅ[40] | |
1 ኢሊም-ኢሊማ | -1480 ዓክልበ. | የሐላብ ንጉሥ | ምናልባት ልጅ[53] |
ዋቢ ምንጮች
ለማስተካከል<div class="reflist references-column-count references-column-count-3" style="
- ^ Martin Sicker (2000). The pre-Islamic Middle East. p. 26. ISBN 9780275968908. http://books.google.nl/books?id=5MYFOWRZ8Z4C&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Ahmad Arhim Hebbo (1993). History of Ancient Levant (part 1) Syria. p. 30. http://books.google.nl/books?id=YqNvQgAACAAJ&dq.
- ^ Lester L. Grabbe (2007). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. p. 58. ISBN 9780567032546. https://books.google.nl/books?id=IvfTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA58#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Alfonso Archi (1994). Orientalia: Vol. 63. p. 250. http://books.google.nl/books?id=hFRwonqqNCUC&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 111. ISBN 9780199646678. http://books.google.nl/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Sarah Melville,Alice Slotsky (2010). Opening the Tablet Box: Near Eastern Studies in Honor of Benjamin R. Foster. p. 376. ISBN 9004186522. http://books.google.nl/books?id=2aq43z3at0wC&pg=PA376#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Mario Liverani (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. p. 354. ISBN 9781134750917. http://books.google.nl/books?id=_EtJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT354#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Arne Wossink (2009). Challenging Climate Change: Competition and Cooperation Among Pastoralists and Agriculturalists in Northern Mesopotamia. p. 128. http://books.google.nl/books?id=Oy4xUpsa7DkC&pg=PA128#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Jack M. Sasson (1969). The Military Establishments at Mari. p. 45. http://books.google.nl/books?id=KYxxmRoTfsQC&pg=PA45&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Yuhong Wu (1994). A Political History of Eshnunna, Mari and Assyria During the Early Old Babylonian Period: From the End of Ur III to the Death of Šamši-Adad. p. 131. http://books.google.nl/books?id=aaDtAAAAMAAJ&q.
- ^ Douglas Frayne (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003–1595 BC). p. 606. http://books.google.nl/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA606&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ Michael David Coogan (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. p. 68. ISBN 9780195139372. http://books.google.nl/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PT68&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ ሐ መ ሠ Mario Liverani (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. p. 234. ISBN 9781134750849. http://books.google.nl/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA234#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. p. 773. ISBN 9781134159086. http://books.google.nl/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA773#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ ሐ መ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. p. 254. ISBN 9781134520626. http://books.google.nl/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=254&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Karen Radner,Eleanor Robson (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture. p. 257. ISBN 9780199557301. http://books.google.nl/books?id=i4jBn3cThwgC&pg=PA257#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>
tag; no text was provided for refs namedDalley
- ^ Eric M. Meyers (1997). The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East, Volume 3. p. 287. ISBN 9780195112177. https://books.google.nl/books?id=zAgZAQAAIAAJ&q.
- ^ British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara (2005). Anatolian Studies, Volumes 55–57. p. 210. https://books.google.nl/books?id=x7E_AQAAIAAJ&q.
- ^ ሀ ለ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>
tag; no text was provided for refs namedGordon
- ^ Mogens Herman Hansen (2000). A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation, Volume 21. p. 61. ISBN 9788778761774. http://books.google.nl/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC&pg=PA61#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Michael David Coogan (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. p. 71. ISBN 9780195139372. http://books.google.nl/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PT71#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ Jack M. Sasson (1969). The Military Establishments at Mari. p. 2. http://books.google.nl/books?id=J8GgNzv1LfsC&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Dominique Charpin (2010). Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. p. 102. ISBN 9780226101590. http://books.google.nl/books?id=eCO17x85ymgC&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ ሐ መ ሠ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. p. 255. ISBN 9781134520626. http://books.google.nl/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT255&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ David Winton Thomas (1967). Archaeology and Old Testament study: jubilee volume of the Society for Old Testament Study, 1917–1967. p. 121. http://books.google.nl/books?id=7TcJAQAAIAAJ&q.
- ^ Trudy Ring,Noelle Watson,Paul Schellinger (2013). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. p. 12. ISBN 9781134259656. https://books.google.nl/books?id=fYH7AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>
tag; no text was provided for refs namedHamblin
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 27. ISBN 9780199646678. http://books.google.nl/books?id=Xno9AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ Mario Liverani (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. p. 260. ISBN 9781134750849. http://books.google.nl/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Dominique Collon (1995). Ancient Near Eastern Art. p. 97. ISBN 9780520203075. http://books.google.nl/books?id=RTGc9YH-C38C&pg=PA97#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. p. 289. ISBN 9781134520626. http://books.google.nl/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT289&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (1999). The Kingdom of the Hittites. p. 83. ISBN 9780199240104. http://books.google.nl/books?id=Agg5-lpVI2MC&pg=PA83&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 29. ISBN 9780191002922. http://books.google.nl/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Charles Burney (2004). Historical Dictionary of the Hittites. p. 107. ISBN 9780810865648. http://books.google.nl/books?id=azPl5Jzv930C&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. p. 256. ISBN 9781134520626. http://books.google.nl/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=PT256&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Annick Payne (2012). Iron Age Hieroglyphic Luwian Inscriptions. p. 3. ISBN 9781589836587. http://books.google.nl/books?id=Tb4mzSQ2nJoC&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Trevor Bryce (1999). The Kingdom of the Hittites. p. 126. ISBN 9780199240104. http://books.google.nl/books?id=Agg5-lpVI2MC&pg=PA126#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Gordon Douglas Young (1981). Ugarit in Retrospect: Fifty Years of Ugarit and Ugaritic. p. 9. ISBN 9780931464072. http://books.google.nl/books?id=1A0OgvXfHlQC&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ ሐ M.C. Astour (1969). Orientalia: Vol. 38. p. 382. http://books.google.nl/books?id=CMR5C12GOF8C&pg=PA382#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards (1973). The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 433. http://books.google.nl/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA433#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ Dominique Collon (1995). Ancient Near Eastern Art. p. 109. http://books.google.nl/books?id=RTGc9YH-C38C&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ ሀ ለ Thomas Nelson (2008). The Chronological Study Bible. p. 393. ISBN 9780718020682. http://books.google.nl/books?id=4HoLII5KmWwC&pg=PA393#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Eric H. Cline,David B. O'Connor (2006). Thutmose III: A New Biography. p. 12. ISBN 0472114670. http://books.google.nl/books?id=eqHKDKo3cVsC&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Douglas Frayne (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). p. 783. ISBN 9780802058737. http://books.google.nl/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA783&lpg#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Beatrice Teissier (1996). Egyptian Iconography on Syro-Palestinian Cylinder Seals of the Middle Bronze Age. p. 28. ISBN 9783525538920. http://books.google.nl/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Douglas Frayne (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). p. 788. ISBN 9780802058737. http://books.google.nl/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA788#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Douglas Frayne (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). p. 792. ISBN 9780802058737. http://books.google.nl/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA792#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Beatrice Teissier (1996). Egyptian Iconography on Syro-Palestinian Cylinder Seals of the Middle Bronze Age. p. 26. ISBN 9783525538920. https://books.google.nl/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Wilfred Van Soldt (1999). Akkadica, Volumes 111–120. p. 106. http://books.google.com/?id=qCgpAQAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0AFLRE728itIF97ocBxP6tf4t-3vxq6DFWKccZMEmRDBdHioXHCgg6e0.
- ^ Douglas Frayne (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC). p. 795. ISBN 9780802058737. http://books.google.nl/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA795#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Wilfred Van Soldt (1999). Akkadica, Volumes 111–120. p. 107. http://books.google.com/?id=qCgpAQAAMAAJ&dq=editions:0AFLRE728itIF97ocBxP6tf4t-3vxq6DFWKccZMEmRDBdHioXHCgg6e0.
- ^ Michael C. Astour (1989). Hittite history and absolute chronology of the Bronze Age. p. 19. ISBN 9789186098865. http://books.google.com/?id=VywMAQAAMAAJ&dq.
- Aruz, Joan (2013). Cultures in Contact: From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C.. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-475-0.
- Bryce, Trevor (1999). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924010-4.
- Bryce, Trevor (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.
- Collon, Dominique (1995). Ancient Near Eastern Art. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20307-5.
- Coogan, Michael David (2001). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.
- Dalley, Stephanie (2002). Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-02-4.
- Edwards, Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen; Gadd, Cyril John; Sollberger, Edmond (1973). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08230-3.
- Frayne, Douglas (1990). Old Babylonian Period (2003–1595 BC). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5873-7.
- Green, Alberto Ravinell Whitney (2003). The Storm-god in the Ancient Near East. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-069-9.
- Hamblin, William (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
- Heinz, Marlies; Feldman, Marian H (2012). Representations of Political Power: Case Histories from Times of Change and Dissolving Order in the Ancient Near East. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-135-1.
- Leick, Gwendolyn (2009). The Babylonian World. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-26128-4.
- Liverani, Mario (2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-75091-7.
- Taracha, Piotr (2009). Religions of Second Millennium Anatolia. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05885-8.
- Van Der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Ugarit and Israel: Continuity and Changes in the Forms of Religious Life. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-10410-5.
- Young, Gordon Douglas (1981). Ugarit in Retrospect: Fifty Years of Ugarit and Ugaritic. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-0-931464-07-2.
- Hadad temple discovery. Kay Kohlmeyer, an archaeologist at Berlin's University of Applied Sciences and the excavation co-director explain about the temple.
- Ansari- ancient Halab.